Elizabethan Women Essay Example for Free

Elizabethan Women Essay The social standards for most women of high nobility were to wear large corseted dresses and apply pallid makeup (History of Elizabethan Women). These women were not allowed a say in anything. They had to follow what the male said; however, if they did not, they would have received a harsh punishment (Elizabethan Women). Therefore the majority of these women would learn to obey quickly. In the Elizabethan Era the upper class women are not permitted to work because they were considered not as strong, or as deft as men(Elizabethan Women). For example, in the movie Shakespeare In Love, women were not permitted to be actresses because it was illegal and extremely inappropriate for a woman to be seen on stage. Viola de Lesseps loved poetry; therefore, she auditioned for Shakespeare’s play dressed as a boy. She went against the advice of her maid and later got caught by the stage master. In the film, she defied the queen’s law but the queen overruled her mistake because of the bet the queen had with Lord Wessex. During the Elizabethan Era there were a plethora of family alliances formed by arranged marriages. In the film, Shakespeare In Love, Viola de Lesseps was coerced into a marriage with Lord Wessex at a very inopportune time. She was in love with Will Shakespeare, but the majority of women in this era were not allowed a say in these affairs (History of Elizabethan Women). These women suppressed their emotions for the man they loved. She was obliged to marry Lord Wessex and follow her father and mother’s orders although she was in love with another man. While women of today prefer have very dark, tan skin, most women from the Elizabethan Era preferred pale white skin. In fact the whiter you were the wealthier you looked because most of the lower class women worked outside which was why they were so tan (Elizabethan Women). Their dark skin tones showed they worked for their money while the upper class women stay indoors most of the day. For example, in Shakespeare In Love, Viola de Lesseps always had a pale face with a big flouncy dress on. She never looked rampant like the street children or their mothers, but always stately and noble. John Madden fairly and accurately demonstrates how women were treated in the Elizabethan Era in his film, Shakespeare In Love. He shows the intricate clothing and colorless make up of these noble women. Also he explains the unfair and loveless arranged marriages that often occurred in the Elizabethan Era.

The History of Public Relations Essay example -- essays research paper

The History of Public Relations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The act of public relations dates back to 52 B.C.E. in ancient Rome and continues on today all around the world. Public relations is defined as the controlling factor that searches to form and maintain relationships between organizations, profit or non-profit and the public that are beneficial for both parties (Bates). The age of public relations as a profession evolved in the 20th Century, mainly in the United States, but its foundation can be followed throughout the age of man. The practice of public relations is dedicated to complete honesty and openness in its communications and operations. Over time, the force of professional public relations has triumphed over several setbacks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur W. Page, creator of the five principles of corporate public relations in 1927 stated, â€Å"All business in a democratic country begins with public permission and exists by public approval. If that be true, it follows that business should be cheerfully willing to tell the public what its policies are, what it is doing, and what it hopes to do. This seems practically a duty.† Page’s principles still carry on today with many businesses and corporations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Page and other renown public relations professionals such as Edward Bernays, founder of modern public relations, believe that pr and civilization is a collaboration that exists throughout time. As far back as the time of Julius Caesar, many historians believe the he wrote his Commentaries as governor of Gaul to promote himself to the public. Caesar, being aware of persuasion and how news can inform the public, published a daily paper called Acta Diurna, meaning â€Å"daily acts† or â€Å"daily records†, that carried on for 400years. Since the invention of writing, public relations was formed. Leaders of ancient civilizations used writings to promote their superiority in war and politics. Public interest became a huge priority for everyone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Renaissance and Reformation founded the modern world and the first stages of public relations that is attributed to public and private organizations today and several articles of history. The Magna Carta, which influenced the U.S. Constitution, for example, empowered the ... ..., organizations, and other institutions, is the public. PR has made its way through history and has satisfied its place or role, if any, in the world today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The three main elements of public relations are practically as old as society: informing people, persuading people, or integrating people with people. Of course, the means and methods of accomplishing these ends have changed as society has changed.† - Edward Bernays, founder of modern public relations Bibliography Don Bates, â€Å"MINI-ME† HISTORY TO INFORM AND PERSUADE: Public Relations from the Dawn of Civilization, Institute for public relations, www.instituteforpr.com, July 18, 2005. Edward L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923; reprint ed., Norman, OK.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961). Edward L. Bernays, Public Relations (Norman, OK.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952) Scott Cutlip, Public Relations History: From the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century (Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates, 1999). Public Relations Society of America, Public Relations Education for the 21st Century: A Port of Entry, PRSA, www.prsa.org, July 19, 2005. The History of Public Relations Essay example -- essays research paper The History of Public Relations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The act of public relations dates back to 52 B.C.E. in ancient Rome and continues on today all around the world. Public relations is defined as the controlling factor that searches to form and maintain relationships between organizations, profit or non-profit and the public that are beneficial for both parties (Bates). The age of public relations as a profession evolved in the 20th Century, mainly in the United States, but its foundation can be followed throughout the age of man. The practice of public relations is dedicated to complete honesty and openness in its communications and operations. Over time, the force of professional public relations has triumphed over several setbacks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur W. Page, creator of the five principles of corporate public relations in 1927 stated, â€Å"All business in a democratic country begins with public permission and exists by public approval. If that be true, it follows that business should be cheerfully willing to tell the public what its policies are, what it is doing, and what it hopes to do. This seems practically a duty.† Page’s principles still carry on today with many businesses and corporations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Page and other renown public relations professionals such as Edward Bernays, founder of modern public relations, believe that pr and civilization is a collaboration that exists throughout time. As far back as the time of Julius Caesar, many historians believe the he wrote his Commentaries as governor of Gaul to promote himself to the public. Caesar, being aware of persuasion and how news can inform the public, published a daily paper called Acta Diurna, meaning â€Å"daily acts† or â€Å"daily records†, that carried on for 400years. Since the invention of writing, public relations was formed. Leaders of ancient civilizations used writings to promote their superiority in war and politics. Public interest became a huge priority for everyone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Renaissance and Reformation founded the modern world and the first stages of public relations that is attributed to public and private organizations today and several articles of history. The Magna Carta, which influenced the U.S. Constitution, for example, empowered the ... ..., organizations, and other institutions, is the public. PR has made its way through history and has satisfied its place or role, if any, in the world today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The three main elements of public relations are practically as old as society: informing people, persuading people, or integrating people with people. Of course, the means and methods of accomplishing these ends have changed as society has changed.† - Edward Bernays, founder of modern public relations Bibliography Don Bates, â€Å"MINI-ME† HISTORY TO INFORM AND PERSUADE: Public Relations from the Dawn of Civilization, Institute for public relations, www.instituteforpr.com, July 18, 2005. Edward L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923; reprint ed., Norman, OK.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961). Edward L. Bernays, Public Relations (Norman, OK.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952) Scott Cutlip, Public Relations History: From the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century (Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates, 1999). Public Relations Society of America, Public Relations Education for the 21st Century: A Port of Entry, PRSA, www.prsa.org, July 19, 2005.

Difference Between Religion and Spirituality

This paper draws from six published works that deal with psychological and scholarly research on religion and spirituality. The works vary in their definitions and use of the concepts and terminology of religion and spirituality. Hood et al. (2009) suggest that that social scientists have traditionally been able to make a distinction between religion and spirituality in their research. However, other psychologists contend that the definitions overlap. Therefore, the conceptual and operational definitions have been inconsistently used. This paper examines Hood et al. 2009) research in relationship to other works to suggest that a definitive definition of religion and spirituality should be developed and agreed upon to advance the science of religion. Keywords: religion, spirituality In order to explore the differences between religion and spirituality one must attempt to define these terms. However, religion and spirituality are complex concepts not easily or definitively definable; a t least not universally. Their meanings have changed over the course of time. At times they have been used synonymously. Yet, at other times religion and spirituality are considered distinct concepts having no overlap.A Study on Religion and the Role of It on People and Media†¦. Furthermore, religion and spirituality are sometimes viewed as if one encompasses the other. It seems to simply be a matter of opinion; who is defining religion, when and for what purpose. To compound this quandary, social Science research suggests that lay people, religious and psychological educators and researchers define religion and spirituality inconsistently. This makes it particularly difficult for the scientific world to even compare research findings on religion and or spirituality. Religion and spirituality are complex and diverse cultural phenomenon. Hood, Hill, and Spilka (2009), stated â€Å"†¦what one person is sure to call religious may be far removed from another person’s understanding, especially when we begin to analyze religion across traditions and cultures† (p. 7). Western societies (especially in the United States) in the not too distant past, typically define religion as an institutionalized set of beliefs and rituals about God that is experienced and or practiced collectively. Conversely, other regions of the world (including eastern Asia) may define religion as encompassing multiple Gods or even no Gods (e. . ungodly supernatural entities) (Hood, et al. , 2009). Hood et al. , (2009) contend that Americans now use the term spirituality in place of religion. Nelson (2009), agrees with Hood et al. , that spirituality has become a synonym for religion. According to Nelson (2009), religion traditionally referred to all aspects of a human’s search for and relationship to a divine or transcendent (something greater than ourselves). Using the terminology of religion and spirituality interchangeably may be common practice but it doesn’t mean that they mean the same things. Like religion, spirituality has been defined in a myriad of ways. In ancient times spirituality was associated with the Hebrew Christian traditions (Ottaway, 2003). Through the 19th century spirituality was often considered to be synonymous with spiritualism. Spiritualism referred to contact with spirits, the supernatural, and psychic phenomena (Nelson, 2009). Hence, spirituality was considered negatively up until the 21st century. According to Nelson (2009), presently â€Å"the term is often used to denote the experiential and personal side of our relationship to the transcendent or sacred† (p. ). Nelson suggests that the people who use this definition tend to view religion as a distinct narrow concept. They typically define religion as â€Å"the organizational structures, practices, and beliefs of a religious group†, (Nelson, 2009, p. 8). The rise in popularity of spirituality in the last two decades has exaggerated the distinction and or lack of distinction between r eligion and spirituality. Whereas, some modern Americans use the terms interchangeably, others (especially those who abhor mainstream religions and all they are associated with) do not. The latter group might prefer to say that they are â€Å"spiritual but not religious†, (Zinnbauer, et al. , 1997). Conversely, people who unknowingly embrace Epstein’s (1993, 1994) Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST) may view spirituality and religion as distinct concepts that are nonetheless related (Hill, 1999). I believe that religion and spirituality can be two distinct concepts but that currently the line between the two is too blurry to be able to distinguish one from the other. One could experience religion without experiencing spirituality (e. g. teenager forced to attend church but merely going through the motions). On the other hand, one could also experience spirituality (e. g. a sense of â€Å"awe† in the presence of nature or enlightenment during meditation) in the absence of religion. Additionally, one could experience both spirituality and religion in the context of the other. For example, one could meditate communally with others in an insti tutional setting (typical of a religious experience) and experience spirituality. Another example is that one could attend church (typical of a religious experience) and meditate individually during the church service. At this point in time, religion and spirituality overlap in a plethora of ways. Each can have a reverence to a God, Gods, or a higher supernatural power or powers. Likewise, religion and spirituality can each have private, public, personal, communal, conscious, unconscious, tangible, intangible, subjective and objective components to them. One difference between spirituality and religion is that â€Å"spirituality does not require an institutional framework†, (Hood, et al, 2009, p. 11). Another difference is that religion does not require communal practices (e. g. an elderly invalid can religiously pray at home). My views on religion and spirituality are that of a layperson and an aspiring psychologist and are indubitably confusing. However, my view doesn’t seem to differ substantially from others (laypersons, religious professionals and scholars, and social science professionals and researchers), as a finite definition for religion or spirituality is nonexistent (Zinnbauer et al. , 2010; Hood et al. , 2009, Nelson, 2009). According to Hood et al. (2009), a traditional distinction exists between religion and spirituality in the research literature, therefore the two terms are not used synonymously. Hood et al. (2009) explains that spirituality is viewed as personal and psychological, while religion is viewed as institutional and sociological. Basically, Hood et al. (2009), contends that religion is steeped in tradition and institution, whereas, spirituality has to do with a person’s personal beliefs, values and behaviors. This definition seems to be consistent with how religion and spirituality were defined between the 19th and 21st centuries. However, it should be noted, that Hood et al. 2009) also, later state that â€Å"in fact it is safe to say that even we three authors of this text do not fully agree with each other about the meaning of these terms† (p. 11). To compound matters, other psychologists suggest that religion and spirituality are used inconsistently in the research literature. Zinnbauer et al, (1997) argue that although social scientists have attempted to define, study, and theorize about religion and spirituality, they have done so inconsistently . â€Å"Still, the ways in which the words are conceptualized an used are often inconsistent in the research literature† (p. 549). According to Bender (2007) religion has been associated with a formal or institutional system and expression of belief and practices that is corporate, public, and conscious in scholarly studies. Conversely, spirituality has been defined as individual, private and unconscious, (Bender, 2007). Due to the inconsistencies in the definitions and use of religion and spirituality a pilot study was conducted to ascertain how religious professionals defined and evaluated religion and spirituality. The 2006 study conducted by Corine Hyman and Paul Handal at Saint Louis University in Missouri included Imans, Ministers, Priests, and Rabbis. These religious experts were asked to conceptually define religion and spirituality and to identify if there were any overlaps between the two. The study findings indicate that there were overlaps between the two concepts. However, religion was defined in a traditional sense of objective, institutional and ritualistic and spirituality was defined as subjective, internal and divine or transcendent (Hyman & Handal , 2006). Another study, this time conducted at the Maryland University, attempted to discern how lay people define religion and spirituality and how they make distinctions between the two. The participants in this study consisted of sixty-seven adults aged 61 to 93 who lived in three different retirement communities (Schlehofer, Omoto, A. M. , Adelman, 2008). The research findings indicate that the participants were better able to define religion concretely, than they were able to define spirituality. â€Å"In fact, some participants were not able to define spirituality at all†, (Schlehofer et al. , 2008). The afore mentioned studies illustrate that defining religion and spirituality is an ongoing task and not easily surmountable. This of course, makes the task of operationally defining religion and spirituality even harder. According to Bender (2007), spirituality is typically measured by asking questions about psychological well-being, experience, and self-identification; while religion is measured by questions about activities and doctrine. Although, many operational definitions have been developed and used to measure religion and spirituality, how does one actually know what one is measuring if the thing(s) that one is measuring is not clearly defined? CONCLUSIONS and Future Study: Ergo, in order to try to understand how religion and or spirituality affect all aspects of a person’s life, it is prudent for the scientific community to agree on what it is that they are actually researching. Once, the terms are defined and agreed upon, then they can operationally define each term. Only then, can psychologists more confidently conduct research and analysis to understand the true effects of religion and spirituality and make comparisons about those findings.ReferencesBender, C. (2007). Religion and Spirituality: History, Discourse, Measurement. Retrieved from http://religion.ssrc.org/reforum/Bender.pdf   Hill, P. C. (1999). Giving religion away: What the study of religion offers psychology. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 94(4), 229-249. Hood, R. W., Hill, P. C., Spilka, B. (2009). The Psychology of Religion, 2, 7-11. Hyman, C., & Handal, P. J. (2006). Definitions and evaluation of religion and spiritua lity items by religious professionals: A pilot study. Journal of Religion and Health, 45(2), 264-282. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10943-006-9015-zNelson, J. M. (2009). Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Introduction to Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Retrieved from http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_local/img/sfxmenu/dl_logo_1024.png Schlehofer, M. M., Omoto, A. M. and Adelman, J. R. (2008). How do â€Å"religion† and â€Å"spirituality† differ? Lay Defintions among Older Adults. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 47: 411-425. Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Rye, M.S., Butter, E. M., Belavich, T.G., Hipp, K. M., Scott, A. B., Kadar, J. L. (1997). Religion and Spirituality: Unfuzzing the Fuzzy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36 (4). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1387689  

Aviation Company Karl Rapp - 1382 Words

Initially starting as an aviation company set up by Karl Rapp which was established in 1913 was the basis at which BMW began their long and illustrious tenor at the top of the luxury brand Automotive industry. Although struggling initially due to poor engine designs which suffered from severe vibration problems the company knows as Rapp Motorenwerke barely remained in business solely due to the Austro-Daimler being unable to keep up with the high demand of the V12 aircraft engines required by the Austrian military. It was this inability to meet their demands that resulted in the decision for the engines to be produced at Rapp Motorenwerke allowing them to remain in business. Franz Josef Popp who was the lead supervising engineering at Austro-Daimler was sent to Munich to supervise the engine quality. Popp went on to become actively involved in the running of the company and was behind the hiring of Max Friz who was a young and talented aircraft engineer. It would be the hiring of Fri z that would change the course of the company. Within a few weeks of his hiring Max Friz had designed a new aero-engine far superior to any other German aero engine currently being produced. Following the departure of Rapp the company took on a large restructuring and BMW was first established as a business entity in 1917. Large orders were being received for the BMW IIIa engine designed by7 Max Friz and a high level of financial assistance were provided by officials in relevant ministries under