buy custom Evidence-Based Practice with Applied Nursing Research

buy custom Evidence-Based Practice with Applied Nursing Research Evidence-Based Practice and Applied Nursing Research Describe, Explain and Discuss Describe the Process or Procedure, and then Include Reasons/Supporting Evidence Why this Needs to be Changed Effective discharge from a health care facility requires careful planning and continuing assessment of the clients needs during the stay. Ideally, discharge planning should begin soon after the clients admission to the health care facility. The purpose of discharge planning process is to assist the client to make a smooth transition from one setting or level of care to another without impending the already achieved progress. Discharge planning is directed towards teaching the client and significant others about the condition and its effects on lifestyle, providing instructions for performing self-care activities, informing the client of any dietary or activity restrictions, and arranging for any follow-up care that may be necessary (Funnell Koutoukidis, 2008).

Literature course Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Literature course - Essay Example Why are we joking about this? It is taking away from everything we are striving for. Why is it that the media, especially television, still picture women as cooks, cleaners, housekeepers and filling gender-specific roles. This disturbs me no end. I thought all along that we were trying to be a more open-minded society where women are known to be strong, able to occupy powerful positions and at times be even superior to men. (example of irony) We must never underestimate women. Remember Joan of Arc and how she led the French army in the war against the English and winning? Wasn’t it a woman- Cleopatra and not a pharaoh who ruled Egypt successfully for a time until the snake was her undoing? And today, we have women invading areas of human endeavor where men heretofore held sway. Most modern families have mothers who are both housekeepers and breadwinners at the same time. We now have women astronauts, company CEO’s, doctors, professors, etc. In American politics, Nancy Pelosi heads the House of Representatives, Condoleeza Rice is the U.S, roving ambassador and doing a wonderful job of mediating with the leaders of countries all over the world. And Hillary Clinton is running for the Presidency. Is America breeding a race of super-women? In the field of entertainment, both screen and stage, American actresses take the lead. In Religion, there are more nuns than priests; however, we still have to see the fairer sex wearing the Fisherman’s ring. (This is a metaphor wherein there is reference to St. Peter, the first Pope, the first one to wear the Fisherman’s ring.) There are still things which women can do better than the men and other things which only women can do and no man can. God meant for women to conceive, carry babies in their wombs and give birth. Then they create a loving and nurturing environment for the children and teach them proper

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 156

Summary - Essay Example It was assumed that there was lack of change in ideologies among the Justices. This conventional view is a result of empirical observation and intuition. One of the main challenges is the study done on voting of justices. In civil liberties, writers reached a conclusion that the rulings of seven Justices (Burton, Burger, Harlan, Brennan, Jackson, Stewart and Marshall) remained unchanged over the period of their careers. The others however, changed in significant ways. There was a great need to resolve the debate that had come up. There was need to reconsider the appointment of justices. In trending to the left, we consider Justice Blackmun, who was among the twelve Justices. He said that when Justices go on Supreme Court their constitutional philosophies are not fully developed. Douglas and Harlan moved to the right and later changed to the left. When appointing a justice, we should ensure that we share the same ideologies with him. Supreme court justices are assumed to have strong dependent votes basing on their personal policies and values. Herman Pritchett’s The Roosevelt Court (1948) examines dissents and voting blocks of Justices. The court allows Justices to be dependent because there is no electoral accountability and the idea that the Supreme Court gives the last and final ruling. Justices are believed to be granted independent powers so that their rulings and not influenced by other parties. Their rulings hence are considered fair and just. Perceived values are not regarded as perfect ideologies of Supreme Court justices. The dependence granted to justices, therefore, renders their voting behavior unpredictable. There is a high correlation between the justices’ votes in civil society and their ideological values. Here we consider how powers are separated in courts. We shall consider the attitudinal model and the model of separation of powers. In attitudinal model, judges make rulings basing on the facts of the

Darwinism versus Creationism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Darwinism versus Creationism - Research Paper Example Darwinism versus Creationism Introduction The significant difference between Darwinism and Creationism is that Darwinism is based on data while Creationism is based on human belief (Scott, 2005). Darwinism is a theory of the original perpetuation of new species of plants and animals which offspring from a certain organism. According to Darwinism, natural selection favors the survival of some species which makes new species arise with time forming divergent variety and groups of plants and animals (Scott, 2005). Darwinism is based on the concept of biological evolution whereby DNA strands cause differences in plants such as color and height of plants and animals (Young & Largent, 2007). On the other hand, Creationism is a doctrine which holds that the world and various forms of life were created by God out of nothing (Scott, 2005). Unlike Darwinism, creationism is not a scientific theory but is based on religious beliefs and doctrines. Charles Darwin theory of origin of species that w as published in 1859 demonstrated that organisms produce offspring that is capable of living and that variations occur in every species population (Young & Largent, 2007). ... Darwinism theory is based on the idea that species change over time and space. Populations in different geographical areas will differ in behavior and physical make up like the fossil deposits (Young & Largent, 2007). According to Darwinism, all species share a common ancestor like human beings share a common ancestor with Chimpanzees some eight million years ago and with Kangaroos some one hundred million years ago (Witham, 2005). According to natural selection process which forms the basis of Darwinism, organisms will exhibit variations in their behavior and physical appearance like voice variations and facial marks. Such traits are passed from the ancestor to offspring but some traits may be influenced by the environmental conditions (Witham, 2005). A trait must pass an advantage to the offspring in order to survive during the struggle for limited resources. The gradual change of the population takes many years like 100,000 rather than creation of new species which is the creation ism belief. Darwinism theory is evident since industrial melanism phenomenon which was experienced during industrial revolution caused tree trunks to darken while light colored moths diminished while black colored moths became abundant. The organisms also transfer genetics to the offspring. Due to competition for the limited resources, the organisms with advantageous traits will survive the competition and continue reproduction. Darwinism theory has been proved by the DNA evidence since parents pass some genes to the offspring (Scott, 2005). On the other hand, Creationism asserts that natural selection doctrine by Darwinism has not been proved scientifically. According

Women buying behaviour towards Essay Example for Free

Women buying behaviour towards Essay Introduction Marketers in today’s business environment are presented with the particular challenge of circumventing conflicted messaging, over-saturation of marketing initiatives, and consumer hesitation and guarded behaviour in order to achieve their objectives of enhancing long term brand loyalty and encouraging product purchases. While there are various environmental stimuli which may influence consumer behaviour, the most significant affectation comes from psychological influences associated with marketing communication and personal interpretation of brand and product value. By expanding this value beyond base level interpretation, marketers are able to influence consumer behaviour and redirect purchases over extended periods of time. In order to achieve such standards, however, it is essential that marketers understand what behaviour may be influenced and in what ways this influence may be affected. Undeniably, the product itself has particular importance in this process; however, the result of a productbased marketing campaign may not demonstrate the value desired by a diverse consumer population. Therefore, the achievement of key consumer development and loyalty objectives is based on investigation and analysis of past, present, and future consumer behaviour. This investigation seeks to expand upon the relationship between consumer behaviour and marketing, highlighting those mechanisms that can contribute to more effective marketing practices. A variety of academic theories and empirical studies have been compiled and analysed over the following section and models of consumer behaviour  analysis and marketing programme development will be highlighted. Ultimately, conclusions will be drawn in which effective marketing is directly affected by consumer behaviour, and more effective means of communication and consumer encouragement are the direct result of cognitive stimuli. From both scientific and market perspectives, the ability to influence consumer behaviour is directly reliant upon an understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation which the majority of consumers within a given market or business sector exhibit. By modelling such motivations and establishing value associated with a particular brand or product, marketers will be able to sustain consumer loyalty over the lifecycle of a product and compete more effectively within marketplaces that are highly saturated. A milestone definition of marketing by Peter Drucker (1999) would firmly establish the relative value and importance of consumer behaviour in effective marketing, arguing that marketing is ‘the whole business seen from the point of view of its final product, that is, from the customer’s point of view’ (58). Marketing, therefore, becomes a composite of both pre-purchase consumer behaviour interpretation and forecasting and post-purchase behavioural analysis. In this way, a rapid increase in consumption over a short period of time may be viewed as an opportunity to develop a broader, loyal consumer base and marketing tactics  must change to accommodate such an opportunity. While early marketing efforts were based on communicating new and diverse products with a growing class of discerning consumers, Raaij et al. (2001:60) argue that marketing communication has since been repurposed in order to establish brand loyalty and reinforce consumer perceptions of value. I n effect, marketers attempt to influence consumer behaviour through their presentation of a strategic, targeted marketing message, establishing the unique value of a given product or brand that will ensure future purchasing loyalty. In his empirical analysis of consumer behaviour and its affectation by marketing initiatives, Foxall (1992:397-98) argues that marketing interventions provide reinforcement of the anticipated result or features of a given product while simultaneously modifying the scope of consumer settings (i.e. purchase  intent, brand loyalty, etc.). Such reinforcement is affected through a variety of channels including product features, strategic delays in provision, and modulation of information exchange and messaging (Foxall, 1992:398). Ultimately, the marketer assumes responsibility for a psychological connection between a particular brand or product and the consumer, strategically directing communications in order to improve a cognitive connection that can potentially influence consumer behaviour. Foxall (1992:398) addresses key concerns surrounding the effectiveness of such communication, but indicates that consumer behaviour has a direct impact on marketing strategies, the result of a meas urable need for reinforcement and connection. As the internet age continues to challenge marketers to consider more diverse relationship formats in the online environment, behavioural analysis has quickly become an effective means of programme development and modulation. From trust to satisfaction to site navigability, Taylor and Strutton (2010:954) have compiled widespread academic evidence that investigates various behavioural features that are frequently evaluated by marketers seeking to enhance their online presence and consumer loyalty. Consumer satisfaction, for example, was found to have a direct impact on trust and brand loyalty in addition to the perceived value of a given product, potentially influencing future purchasing decisions or commitments (Taylor and Strutton, 2010:954). While such concerns are more traditional in nature, their applicability within an online purchasing environment is undeniable, and without marketer intervention and a strategic reinforcement of value, there is a potential that future purchases will be impacted. Yet such interventions require a concise and accurate understanding of consumer behaviour in order to effectively provide value-oriented reinforcement and messaging that is directly related to consumer value systems. Aside from the electronic nature of online consumption, the diversification of communication channels and its impact on consumer behaviour in the past decade has had direct and remarkable influences purchasing decisions, brand loyalty, and consumer commitment. Anton et al. (2007:515) argue that as consumer access to information, feedback, and peer reviews has increased, consumers have increasingly become intolerant to inconsistency and mediocrity, the result of exposure to choice. Essentially the consumer right to choose continues to  impact behaviour and future purchasing considerations, as substitute products and competitive messaging have a direct impact on interpretation and loyalty. By communicating added value and fostering a stable and sustainable relationship, Anton et al. (2007:516) suggest that marketers are able to influence consumer switching behaviour and restrict the influence of competitive initiatives. The affectation provided by strategic marketing communication is essentially a direct link to consumer preferences and purchasing models, as psychological affectation becomes a means of sustaining a particular, idealised behaviour. The role between consumer behaviour and marketing is based on adaptation, a concept that is oftentimes difficult to implement within a diverse, competitive environment as firms attempt to strategically manage resources and reduce corporate excess. Thrassou and Vrontis (2009:499) argue that the consumer behaviour is the most valuable information conduit for marketers as they attempt to navigate market changes, competitive influences, and the consumer buying cycle. From channel preferences (i.e. television, magazine, etc.) to message content, the consumer response to various initiatives should be predictable, a function of extensive market research and behavioural analysis (2009:510). Marketing  communications, as a strategic, value-added enterprise for modern organisations has shifted in its purpose, embracing the demonstration and modelling of product value within the context of consumer preferences, as opposed to past models of feature presentation, differentiation, etc (2009:516). Essentially, the role of the consumer has become one of exchange and communication, providing marketers with information necessary to evolve their messaging, models, and marketing channels. While there is inherent value in strategic messaging, the targeted nature of such communication must be linked to key stimuli which inspire consumer behaviour. Chiu et al. (2005:1682) evaluate such phenomena from a more scientific perspective, suggest that the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) paradigm provides evidence the underlying psychological response that can be expected from consumers. Essentially, the relational bonding activities by a firm (stimulus) can have a measurable impact on con sumers’ value perceptions (organism), whereby  their purchase behaviours may be influenced (response) (Chiu et al., 2005:1682). Within such a model, it is evident that the consumer perception of value has a direct influence on their subjective response to stimuli from marketers, but in order to ensure that such responses are consistent with what the marketing initiative had intended, marketers must understand consumer perceptions and their impact on behaviour. Chiu et al. (2005:1687) used empirical data to model the influence which value perceptions can have on switching behaviour amongst consumers, suggesting that dissatisfaction in general cannot be overcome through messaging or branding alone. Instead, there is a measurable link between the depth of the relationship between a given brand and its consumers which can allow marketers to overcome dissatisfaction and achieve a renewed state of trust. Such relational bonding focuses on the inherent value of a given product to the consumer in relation to their wants and needs, establishing a connection between fulfilment and the particular product in which there is an inherent purchasing response when considering that particular need. When considering the decision making process of consumers, there tangible rewards which must be considered for picking a particular brand or product. De Wulf and Okerken-Schroder (2003:97), for example, have suggested that at the first level of relationship marketing, basic, tangible rewards are identified including cost savings and pricing incentives which provide consumers with a more general value based on financial concerns. More dynamic rewards also focus on intrinsic value in which rewards systems connect consumers and products according to an extended, implied position of loyalty. From rewards coupons to frequent flyer programmes to loyalty bonuses, the long term achievement of reward for consumers can lead them to remain loyal to a particular brand, as switching behaviour would ultimately have a measurable consequence for their rewards earnings (De Wulf and Okerken-Schroder, 2003:97). Such second tier rewards systems establish a long term relationship between the consumer and the brand, ultimately defining consumer participation within the programme in spite of other value challenges or product inconsistencies. Oftentimes the value of understanding consumer behaviour can provide marketers with the information necessary to repurpose their products,  meeting consumer needs without directly impacting the product or brand itself. Fine (2010) presents evidence of the information value associated with purchase behaviour, as consumers self-actualise particular objectives and needs through consumptive actions. From luxury items to particular brands, the decision to purchase a particular product is frequently based on deeper psychological influences, oftentimes influencing brand loyalty according to psycho-social interpretation of product value (Fine, 2010:244). While such peer-based acknowledgement of value can be identified through survey and research, information surrounding consumer behaviour and brand preferences is much more valuable when considering rebranding efforts and consumer communication. Ultimately, Fine (2010:245) argues that it is the achievement of status through the purchase of a luxury or personally valuable brand that can provide consumers with a level of satisfaction that is linked to their future purchase intentions. As previously discussed, dissatisfaction or product failure can ultimately lead to reduced value within this relationship and dissolve the psychological connection. Consumer behaviour is both time sensitive and immediate, experiencing influences according to various stimuli over time. Kowatsch and Maas (2010:702) have modelled the impact which direct communication can have on consumer behaviour during their purchasing process, using an in-store, mobile recommendation agent (MRA) to provide information and feedback for consumers as they shop. The inherent value of such decision assistance systems was demonstrated from a practical perspective, allowing consumers to access additional product data that might have otherwise remained unavailable. The authors also determined that the effectiveness of the system (MRA) had a measurable impact on consumer purchasing behaviour, suggesting that the personal value of the information and the means in which it was communicated could determine whether or not the consumer would engage in the purchase (Kowatsch and Maass, 2010:702). These findings also have implications for more practical marketing applications, as information exchange during the consumption process can have different influences on consumer behaviour than information exchanged over a more extended period of time. Whether communicated at the point of purchase or over other channels, the marketing message can have a direct impact on consumer behaviour.  Research on exploratory buying behaviour has been conducted by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996:132), demonstrating how psychological affectation can ultimately lead to consumers decision to purchase, even without original experience with a particular product. The authors argue that there are a host of unique, individual-specific traits which can lead to differences in product purchasing behaviour, the result of interpretation of stimuli and risk taking proclivity (Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996:131). In order to chase consumers motivated by curiosity or by particular incentives, the authors suggest that marketers must explore the psychological implications of their particular messaging, potentially resulting in a greater sales opportunity. Taking advantage of promotional campaigns and marketing to specific niche consumers are some methods in which consumer behaviour can be influenced by particular psychological undercurrents within a singular marketing mix. The authors also suggested that there may not be a large difference in consumption behaviour amongst individuals with similar cultural ties, as the influence of marketing campaigns may resonate universally amongst these individuals (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996:134). Regardless of affectation, such findings do have important implications when considering the inherent value of marketing campaigns in affecting consumer purchasing behaviour. While marketing initiatives are frequently associated with consumer purchasing behaviour, there are underlying variables related to such consumption that must also be addressed in order to encapsulate the value of a particular product or brand for consumers. Demirdijian and Senguder (2004), for example, have investigated products from a psychological perspective, highlighting key genetic characteristics that influence behaviour and programme future purchasing behaviour. Whether linked to an individual’s personal preferences or actually a function of internal chemical stimuli, the researchers suggest that there are more scientific reasons for consumer behaviour that can ultimately be determined, modelled, and used in product marketing (Demirdijian and Senguder , 2004:351). From the interpretation of a particular taste to the analysis of various sensations associated with fabric, analysts are able to determine and synthesise a future intent to purchase. While such product development can  be used for consumer influence, it can also be used to generate data relevant to the development of those products and services that have greater value to consumers over the long term. While value-added positioning can be achieved through market research, scientific analysis of consumer behaviour will also produce a means of defining those more subversive value components that might otherwise not be identified, from product packaging to secondary uses to the inherent status perceptions held by consumers during use. Conclusions This analysis began with a simple question of why consumer behaviour and an understanding of such processes is useful from the perspective of the marketer. There were a variety of findings uncovered over the course of this research, the majority of which establish some form of affectation according to  psychological influences and messaging stimuli. Inherently linked to brand loyalty and the consumer commitment to the product or brand over time, the means of reducing switching behaviours within extremely saturated marketplaces are directly afforded by marketing communication. The effectiveness of such communication, however, can have the desired (or opposite) result on sustaining consumer loyalty over an extended period of time. While more traditional marketing models focused on product features and competitive positioning of particular brands or products, modern marketing emphasises the relationship between consumer behaviour and value. By enhancing a product’s value, consumers are encouraged to engage in the buying process and are more likely to maintain personal investment in a product over an extended period of time. There are several implications associated with this research and this analysis of various academic perspectives within this field. First, there is a psychological link between purchase and loyalty. Where cognitive interpretation of marketing messages may have influence on purchasing behaviour over the long term, exploratory consumption may result from proper stimulation and more dynamic brand messaging early in the buying cycle. It is this internalisation of intent which ultimately allows marketers to  attract a larger base of consumers, even in a marketplace where there are various substitute products. In order to identify the best fit communication strategy, marketers are oftentimes forced to rely on trial and error or unsupported market research. By modelling particular behaviour patterns, however, associated with exploratory buying, these firms and individuals may be able to predict consumer responses to more dynamic marketing campaigns. From rewards programmes to creative branding to niche marketing, the ability to communicate with consumers according to their personal preferences and their understanding of intrinsic an extrinsic product value is invaluable and can sustain a product’s market expansion over the long term. This research has demonstrated that consumer behaviour and marketing are undeniably linked, and through the understanding of the former, the latter may be more appropriately defined. References Anton, C., Camarero, C., Carrero, M. (2007) ‘The Mediating Effect of Satisfaction on Consumers’ Switching Intention.’ Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 511-538. Baumgartner, H., Steenkam, J.B.E.M. (1996) ‘Exploratory Consumer Buying Behavior: Conceptualization and Measurement.’ International Journal of Research in Marketing, Vol. 13, pp. 121-137. Chiu, H.C., Hsieh, Y.C., Li, Y.C., Lee, M. (2005) ‘Relationship Marketing and Consumer Switching Behavior.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 58, pp. 1681-1689. Demirdijian, Z.S., Senguder, T. (2004) ‘Perspectives in Consumer Behavior: Paradigm Shifts in Prospect.’ The Journal of the American Academy of Business, pp. 348-353. De Wulf, K., OdkerkenSchoder, G. (2003) ‘Assessing the Impact of a Retailer’s Relationship Efforts on Consumers’ Attitudes and Behavior.’ Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Vol. 10, pp. 95-108. Drucker, P.F. (1999 ) Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, and Practices. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Fine, L.M. (2010) ‘Altruism and Hedonism: A Review and Discussion of Recent Findings in the Marketing and Consumer Behavior Literature.’ Business Horizons, Vol. 53, pp. 241-246. Foxall, G.R. (1992) ‘The Consumer Situation: An Integrative Model for Research in Marketing.’ Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 8, pp. 383-404. Kowatsch, T., Maass, W. (2010) ‘In-Store Consumer Behavior: How Mobile Recommendation Agents Influence Usage Intentions, Product Purchases, and Store Preferences.’ Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 26, pp. 697-704. Mooij, M., Hoftede, G. (2002) ‘Convergence and Divergence in Consumer Behavior: Implications for International Retailing.’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 78, pp. 61-69. Raaij, W.F.V., Strazzieri, A., Woodside, A. (2001) ‘New Developments in Marketing Communications and Consumer Behavior.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 53, pp. 59-61. Taylor, D.G., Strutton, D. (2010) ‘Has EMarketing Come of Age? Modeling Historical Influences on Post-Adoption Era Internet Consumer Behaviors.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 63, pp. 950-956. Thrassou, A., Vrontis, D. (2009) ‘A New Consumer Relationship Model: The Marketing Communications Application.’ Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 499-521.

Essay --

CRITICALLY EVALUATE THE MAIN INFLUENCES ON OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE AND THE CONTENTION THAT INDIVIDUALS HAVE THE FREEDOM TO CHOICE Introduction: Occupational choice is the most important decision for one person with out any doubt which could be made in a person's life time. In about 1951 or more back, Ginzberg et al carried out a major study research regarding the occupational choice, which now in the 21st century is known as the originating theories on the topic. '' Waliam stated that It is very Important and Crucial at times to determine the standard of living, the income, the quality of ones life, self esteem, social relationship, the environment and also its crucial to determine whether the child of a particular family would enter which occupation field'' (Williams 1974:15) Stating above by Williams (1974), it is reflecting that how a person is satisfied within his/her working environment and it could be often previewed that the other aspects of that particular persons lives will follow on from this. This essay will firstly explain the occupational choice, then it will address its theories and how they are developed and contrasting opinions and further moving down it will explain the freedom of choice for the individuals and argue on it. Jackson(2001) said that people from higher class positions could use their non merits benefits to obtain their certain positions. Goldthrope said that pupil from less advantage class need to show more merits than pupil from more advantaged class in order to obtain the same position. Achieved roles are those roles which are achieved and gained for themself and are f... ... the best job for one person as it maybe not percieve to others. Wilson(2010) states the problem of race. The EHRC research report found that the black Caribbean boys and White people have achieved bad grades(EHRC 2010) where as Haw(1998) explained from her research that some were confused with Muslim pupls Treatment.(Ambercrombie and Warde 2003:474-5). The ninety percent of women in its role of The Royal Army force now offers them where as the Navy and the Army have about three quarters to both the females and males. Womens are mostly looking for Self fulfilment for their occupations. (Watson 2003:194).Timperley and Gregory (1971) had recently research that about three to four times females want to go into education or further studies after school where as males are different they want to find a job and go straight into the labour market or work.(Wilson 1974:193).

Marxist and Neoclassical Economics

Marx's economic theories mainly deal with the comparison and contrast between Marxism and Capitalism. Karl Marx had many theories that dealt with many different aspects of society. This concept deals with the exploitation of workers and the components involved in production. The first part of Marx's value of labour theory deals with commodities. Commodities are defined as an object outside of us, a thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of some sort or another (Miliband, 1977, 243). These commodities have different values and according to Marx every commodity has two values: exchange value and use value. The use value of a commodity refers to the fact that is has some sort of use; it serves some purpose or meets some want. Every commodity must have a use or it has no value and is not a commodity. Exchange value refers to the ratio at which a commodity can be exchanged with another. In certain quantities all commodities can be exchanged for other commodities (Miliband, 1977, 254). Even the most worthless commodity, when taken in big enough quantities, can be exchanged for the most valuable of commodities. For example, a large quantity of corn or apples can be exchanged for a diamond. The next part of Marx's theory deal with the values of the labour. Marx argued that what commodities all have in common is the fact that they are all products of human labour. It is human labour that has created them and it is the amount of human labour that goes into them that determines value. Karl Marx's labour theory of value asserts that the value of an object is solely a result of the labour expended to produce it. According to this theory, the more labour or labour time that goes into an object, the more it is worth. Marx defined value as â€Å"consumed labour time†, and stated that â€Å"all goods, considered economically, are only the product of labour and cost nothing except labour†(Parekh, 1982, 386). One crucial element of classical political economy that was eventually displaced in the neoclassical revolution of the nineteenth century was the idea that labour was a primary or even exclusive determinant of value. Now, readings of Marx that posit him either as the last of the great classicals or as the leading left-wing critic of classical political economy often share the claim that Marx extracted from the classicals the view that labour is the sole source of value. Marx is applauded for his consistent formulation of a labour theory of value and, thus, for his adherence to the view that social relations of production determine the distribution of social labour and the value and exchange-value of commodities. That is, as for many other Marxists, the fact that individuals may desire beings and motivated in their economic behaviours by instinct, affection, emotion, and so forth is relegated to the status of secondary phenomena insofar as the determination of value, the social allocation of labour, and the distribution of income and wealth are involved. For many Marxists, the essential causes of economic activity are labour and production. Thus, the labouring body, rendered in some versions of this story as a truly trans-historical corporeal entity, is given pride of place in establishing the conditions for that which is uniquely human and thereby economic. This ‘productionist’ bias of Marxists has constituted the grounds by which Marxism has discursively ignored or excluded libido, excess, and true expenditure in the economic theory to which it has given rise. (Resnick, 2001, 56-60) Contemporary Marxian critics in the field of economics, then, often prefer to resurrect the nineteenth-century debates over the correct attribution of value to either ‘subjective’ desire or ‘objective’ labour. Their critique of neoclassical theory devolves on the claim that the bourgeois individualism, naturalism, and arcane abstraction consequent upon the use of axiomatic formulations in neoclassicism obscure the true (McCloskey, 2003, 12-14) conditions under which economic activities and institutions arise. Whereas production is viewed as ubiquitous across epochs and geographical boundaries, desire and utility maximization are seen as limited in historical importance to capitalist societies and, even there, they are more a consequence of a hegemonic false consciousness imposed by the self-promotion of the bourgeoisie (for example, to hide the ‘fact’ of exploitation or to explain away the waste and inefficiency of unplanned markets) than the objective conditions of life under capitalism. The modernism of much Marxism consists, at least partly, in its insistence in finding an ontological referent for the essential cause – labour – that emerges in Marxian economics as the source of value. The labouring body and the conditions of work, then, take precedence in everything from determining the nature of subjectivity (the individual who produces him/herself in the course of participating in social labour) and estimating the ‘good life’ (the elimination of alienation in work) to the primacy of certain struggles in the movements to transform and move beyond capitalism. Comparison and Contrast Karl Marx set the wheels of modern Communism and Socialism in motion with his writings in the late nineteenth century. In collaboration with his friend, Fredrich Englels, he produced the Communist Manifesto, written in 1848. Many failed countries' political and economic structures have been based on Marx's theories. That is why he is known as on of the most influential people of the history of the world. Marxism in its various forms has affected the world greatly throughout time. Both World Wars have involved communist countries to a great extent. Communism has gone wrong in many countries, with the state turning into an authoritarian one, with a few people at the top abusing their power for their own personal gain, at the expense of the other members of the public. (England, 1993, 37-53) Rather than codifying the classicals’ labouring body as a first principle, Marx can be said to have disrupted the order of the body established in classical political economy and in much Marxism. For us, Marx is not the inventor of a new anthropology (his work, we believe along with Althusser, represents a sharp rupture from the humanist anthropology that preceded – and, in the pretensions of the early neoclassicals, followed – him). Briefly stated, we view Marx’s contributions to be more along the lines of presenting the human body as a register of class and other economic and social processes, a place where the effects of capitalism are largely inscribed, rather than the site of the privileged origin (through labour) of subjectivity, agency, or socioeconomic relations. In other words, the body that Marx presents in his writings is over determined and has no centre or essential unity other than that which is the effect of the historical conditions of production, consumption, circulation, distribution, and so forth. In this sense, the body in Marx’s work is closer to some current neoclassical renditions, at least insofar as it is differentiated, dispersed, and brought to temporary unity by specific productions rather than by the presumption of its essentiality. (Cohen, 1978, 110-14) The problem, then, for some of the Marxian critics of neoclassical theory is that the story they prefer revives a view of the body and subjectivity that are fully part of the modernist project to promote an overarching and exhaustive notion of ‘man’. In this regard, the post-modern moments of Marxism are suppressed and the affinity that Marxists may have with other developments within which the humanism of the classicals is finally displaced is largely ignored. (Blaug, 1992, 319-22) To put this otherwise, the retention of the labouring body as prime cause of social and economic relations does little to undermine the humanist essentialism that, purportedly, many Marxists have been at pains to attack over the course of the last century. While recent neoclassicals and Marxists may make absurd bed mates, there is a sense in which Marxists can augment rather than blunt their attacks on bourgeois social order by acknowledging the fragmentation of the human body and the dismemberment of theoretical humanism that may have been accomplished by some neoclassicals. (Ollman, 1995, 201-10) A similar issue confronts post-Keynesian critics of neoclassical economics. Instead of using their trenchant questioning of the notions of certainty (and of probabilistic certainty), rationality, and much else that still abounds within neoclassical theory, together with their own exploration of the significance and effects of uncertainty, as the initial steps in decentring the body, post-Keynesian economists have largely resisted such a move. As we see it, the ‘radical uncertainty’ (de Marchi, 2001, 86-90) originally focused on by Keynes and now embraced by post-Keynesian economists has the potential of disrupting the modernist unity of the body, for example, by severing the necessary connection between, the presumed sequence of, some set of initial anticipations and the actions of economic agents as well as by ‘relativizing’ even the recognition of the degrees and forms of certain and uncertain knowledge on the part of those agents, making uncertainty into a variable and heterogeneous constituent and effect of bodily capabilities and orders. (Amariglio, 1994, 7-35) Conclusion Up to the end of the nineteenth century, the sensible presence of the monetary substance (gold, silver) which guaranteed more or less directly the value of the circulating sign, could lead us to forget that money was also a sign. The gold-standard system implied the circulation of gold by itself or the free convertibility of bank-notes into gold. And this, according to a creed which was almost unanimously shared by all economists and statesmen of the nineteenth century, regardless of their nationality, their religious beliefs, or philosophical opinions: ‘banknotes have value only because they represent gold’. Marx himself denied the possibility or the legitimacy of money which would be a mere sign. For him, the backing by commodity-money (produced by a certain amount of labour) is necessary. Nowadays, the direct representational possibility of monetary signs is suspended not only for circumstantial reasons, but completely suppressed, as we know, for reasons that became structural. Thus, we passed from a monetary regime where gold circulated in presencia to a regime where money was a sign representing gold; and finally to money which is a pure sign, without any reference to a gold-value, a regime of complete non-convertibility. The logical relationship between the non-convertibility of money and the dismissal of the labour theory of value by neoclassical economists and mainstream economics has been stressed. Post-Keynesians, however, tend to emphasize the extradiscursive ‘brute nature’ of uncertainty, reducing it to the limits on knowledge imposed by an unforeseeable future. Their view is that neoclassical economists (and, with them, others such as new Keynesian economists), by emphasizing certain (or, again, probabilistically certain) knowledge, have simply exaggerated the role and possibilities of rational calculation and diminished the ‘animal spirits’, ‘spontaneous optimism’, and other nonrational, corporeal determinants of economic behaviour. In this sense, post-Keynesian economists seek to reinscribe a more ‘balanced’ human body – one which, if not exactly derivative of the classicals, both recognizes the limitations of the body (for example, in terms of the ability to gather and process information) and recovers the kind of profusion of sentiments and emotions, conventions and habits, that were seen to be central to the activities and practices of economic agents prior to the marginalist revolution. It is this body which, for post-Keynesians, serves both to replace the ‘sterility’ of disembodied neoclassical decision-makers and to avoid the ‘nihilism’ occasioned by the post-modern decentring of the body. References Amariglio, J. and Ruccio, D. F. (1994) ‘Postmodernism, Marxism, and the Critique of Modern Economic Thought’, Rethinking Marxism 7 (Fall): 7-35. Blaug, M. (1992) The Methodology of Economics; Or How Economists Explain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 319-22. Cohen, G.A. Karl Marx's Theory of History. 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